Writing conventions exist so writing is uniform and more easily understood. Dictionaries were invented to make writing uniform at the word level. Grammar rules ensure writing is uniform at the phrase, clause, and sentence levels. Beyond that, format keeps writing uniform. Each professional discipline sticks to a format: journalists follow Associated Press (AP) Format, psychologists and sociologists follow American Psychological Association (APA) format, and most engineers follow the Chicago format.
LITERARY WRITING FOLLOWS MLA FORMAT. ALWAYS.
Written essays. Printed essays. Digital essays. ALL must be in MLA format. A group called the Modern Language Association of America (MLA) sets the rules for how essays in the discipline of English should look and how sources should be cited (to learn more about that, go to the research section). APA and Chicago formats are very similar (and this article will point out the differences for those writing in those styles at the very end), and even with MLA, instructors may have their own variations on these conventions. In general, here is what MLA requires for what every formal assignment should look like:
STEP 1: MAKE MARGINS ALL ONE INCH
Margins must be 1” on all sides. This allows an instructor to write in the margins and leaves enough room for a hole punch or binding staple on the left side.
STEP 2: SET A SIMPLE FONT
MLA requires four qualities of a font:
Some instructors will ask for a specific font they prefer (for example, Mr. Coon prefers Calibri body 11). If it is up to your to choose your font, you must decide between a serif font or sans serif font. A serif is a little tail you will see on the ends of letters that make letters look fancier. Serif fonts (like Times New Roman or Georgia) look more professional, but sans serif fonts without the little tails (like Ariel or Helvetica) are easier to read. The default font on most word processing programs is typically an acceptable sans serif font. Regardless of what you choose, the font MUST be the same throughout the paper.
- it must be black (HEX #000000)
- it must be between 11 and 13 point (size relative to 1"/72 point)
- it must have lowercase and uppercase letters--this means block fonts are not allowed
- it must have a regular face and and italics face, and these two must differ enough that they are recognizable from each other--this means script and decorative fonts are not allowed
Some instructors will ask for a specific font they prefer (for example, Mr. Coon prefers Calibri body 11). If it is up to your to choose your font, you must decide between a serif font or sans serif font. A serif is a little tail you will see on the ends of letters that make letters look fancier. Serif fonts (like Times New Roman or Georgia) look more professional, but sans serif fonts without the little tails (like Ariel or Helvetica) are easier to read. The default font on most word processing programs is typically an acceptable sans serif font. Regardless of what you choose, the font MUST be the same throughout the paper.
STEP 3: ADD PAGINATION TO THE TOP MARGIN
Pagination, or the addition of page numbers, is a requirement for MLA format. Click the top margin of the page to access the running head options to add page numbers to the top of your page. Justify these page numbers to the right side and 1/2" down from the edge of the page. Students need to add their surname before the page number without any commas, dashes, or page indicators like the word page or a p. If there is more than one author, separate the surnames with commas. This running head should appear on all pages of the document (though some instructors prefer that students leave pagination off the first page) and should be in the same font as the rest of the document.
Like having a header, pagination is necessary to prevent submission issues. If the staple that holds together all pages of the document comes loose and the essay falls apart, the instructor can easily put it back together using the page numbers at the top.
Like having a header, pagination is necessary to prevent submission issues. If the staple that holds together all pages of the document comes loose and the essay falls apart, the instructor can easily put it back together using the page numbers at the top.
Learner, Student 1 Samantha Learner
Billy C. Student Mr. Coon Freshman English 9, B6 10 November 2023 WC: 3467 words Title of the Assignment Centered:
No Bold, No Underline, No Bigger Text Size |
STEP 4: ADD A MLA HEADER TO THE FIRST PAGE
The whole idea behind the header is that if a students loses a printed copy of their essay and someone finds it, that person can get it to the right instructor who can then make sure it gets graded. The first page and only the first page should have a header in the upper left corner. This header should have on separate lines
If a submission piece has multiple authors, each author's name should be added on separate lines in alphabetical order by surname.
Dates for MLA headers are always written in day month year format with the month spelled out and no commas: 10 November 2023; not 11/10/2023 or November 10, 2023.
When calculating word count, do not include the header, the title, any footnotes or end notes, and any works cited.
- the student's full name
- the name of the class instructor
- the title and course number/period number of the class
- the date of submission
- Word count of the project (if requested by the instructor)
If a submission piece has multiple authors, each author's name should be added on separate lines in alphabetical order by surname.
Dates for MLA headers are always written in day month year format with the month spelled out and no commas: 10 November 2023; not 11/10/2023 or November 10, 2023.
When calculating word count, do not include the header, the title, any footnotes or end notes, and any works cited.
STEP 5: ADD A PLAIN TITLE
Adding a title should be the easiest formatting task, but it is the most likely element to have a mistake. Lots of students think that the title needs to stand out or grab attention, but it shouldn't at all. Titles should look like all other text in the document: it shouldn't be bolded, it shouldn't be italicized, it shouldn't be quoted, it shouldn't be underlined, it shouldn't be in all caps, it shouldn't be in a different color or font, and it shouldn't be bigger than the rest of the text.
So what should it be? The title should skip a full line after the MLA header and be centered. The title should be properly capitalized according to MLA title conventions. If the title has a subtitle, the subtitle should be on the line directly underneath the title.
So what should it be? The title should skip a full line after the MLA header and be centered. The title should be properly capitalized according to MLA title conventions. If the title has a subtitle, the subtitle should be on the line directly underneath the title.
EXCEPTION: COVER PAGES
Occasionally, instructors will want a separate cover page for an assignment. A cover page (also known as a title page) will have the MLA header in the top left as normally written, but it will have no pagination and no text after the title, which is still centered but is moved to about of a third of the way down the page. The next page will have pagination and will be page 1. Page 1 will have no MLA header or title and will just start with the first paragraph. Requests for cover pages are becoming less common, so do not provide one unless your instructor specifically requests it.
STEP 5: GIVE YOUR BODY TEXT SOME SPACE
Skip a full line after the title and start writing the body text of the assignment. Keep these formatting standards in mind:
- Text should also be justified to the left margin--do not have the text centered or fully justified from margin-to-margin.
- Every paragraph should have a 1/2" indent on the first line (though some instructors wave this requirement).
- Text should be double-spaced so an instructor can write comments easily between each line (though again, some instructors wave this requirement).
- After every sentence, only a single space is needed after the end punctuation before the next sentence (though some instructors may ask for two spaces).
- After every paragraph, skip a full line before starting the next paragraph.
STEP 6: HOW TO ADD SUBHEADS, BLOCK QUOTES, LISTS, TABLES, & IMAGES
Adding Subheads
In a longer essay or article where breaking the body text into sections to make reading the work easier, add subheads. Subheads act like mini-titles for the different sections or moments of the essay. Text should never have just one subhead but a few throughout the piece, though the text should not start off with a subhead right under the title. As mini-titles, subheads align to the left margin and be fairly short. Subheads should also follow the same capitalization conventions of other titles. There are three levels for subheads, each of which has its own format:
Level One Subheads Are Bold and in 14-16 Point
LEVEL TWO SUBHEADS ARE THE SAME FONT BUT IN ALL CAPS
Level Three Are the Same Size but All Italicized
Block Quotes
A block quote is required when a writer wants to quote more than four lines of text, poetic text where formatting is important, or dramatic lines written in exchange format. The block quote should start on a new line under its leading paragraph (do not skip a full line). The entire text of the block quote should be indented by 1/2" just like the first lines of paragraphs. After the block quote, either continue the paragraph without skipping a line or indenting the paragraph at all, of skip a full line and start a new paragraph with indent. Block quotes look something like this:
ORLANDO: And wilt thou have me?
ROSALIND: Ay, and twenty such.
ORLANDO: What sayest thou?
ROSALIND: Are you not good?
ORLANDO: I hope so.
ROSALIND: Why then, can one desire too much of a good thing? (AYL IV.i.1895-1900)
For more clarity on how to use quotations properly in essay writing, read this article.
Adding Lists
Sometimes, listing items and separating them with commas isn't enough--the writer wants to make the lists stand out with clear divisions between each part of the list. There are two types of lists the writers can make: the embedded list and the bulleted list.
To make an embedded list, the writer ( 1 ) list all the subjects of the list in the desired order as part of a sentence; ( 2 ) place a semicolon after every list item; ( 3 ) place an Arabic numeral (never Roman) before each item but after any commas or conjunctions; and ( 4 ) place parentheses around each number while ensuring there exists a space between each number and parenthesis. This method works well to incorporate very long lists and steps in a sequence without disrupting the fluency of reading.
Bulleted lists work a bit differently. A writer wanting to use a bulleted list needs to keep in mind
Adding Tables
Only add tables when they are needed to clarify and naturally expand upon the the ideas in the text--they should never be superfluous or added just to extend a page count. While tables should be tied directly to the text, they should be clear enough to interpret without need of the text.
Place tables as close as possible to their related text while keeping the entire table on one page. Before inserting the table, insert a line break and add a label consisting of the capitalized word Table and an Arabic number representing which table is being represented without punctuation (e.g., Table 1). This label should match an end-of-sentence parenthetical in the body text where the table data is mentioned and interpreted, just without the capital letter (see Table 1).
On the line under the table label should be the title of the table written in MLA title case. All this text should be left-justified and should not deviate in font or format from the body text.
Under this, add the table aligned to the left margin (though the data inside the table should be centered). A caption may be added immediately under the table if the table need further explanation--again, this text should match the rest of the text in the writing. These captions can be used as source citations written in the typical MLA format but without hanging indents. If the source citation for the table is not in the caption, it needs to be added to the Works Cited section.
Adding Figures
Any graphic, non-text element that isn't a table is considered a figure--figures include illustrations, photos, graphs, charts, and maps. Like tables, figures should be placed as close as possible to their related text while keeping the entire figure on one page. However, this does not mean figures should have text wrap around them as is done in journalism and online media: before inserting the figure, a line break must be inserted between the body text and the figure. Unlike tables, figures do not have to be left aligned and may be centered if desired.
Immediately under the figure, add a label consisting of the capitalized abbreviation Fig. and an Arabic number representing which table is being represented followed by a period (e.g., Fig. 1.). This label should match an end-of-sentence parenthetical in the body text where the figure is mentioned and interpreted, just without the capital letter (see fig. 1). The label needs to be left-justified even if the figure itself is centered.
Immediately following the label must be a caption that describes what the figure is--again, this text should match the rest of the text in the writing. Like with a table, this caption can be used as a source citation written in the typical MLA format but without hanging indents. If the source citation for the table is not in the caption, it needs to be added to the Works Cited section.
The one exception to these rules are images consisting of musical measures. Instead of calling such an illustration a figure, call it an example and label it Ex. Otherwise, all formatting and content requirements are the same as figures.
In a longer essay or article where breaking the body text into sections to make reading the work easier, add subheads. Subheads act like mini-titles for the different sections or moments of the essay. Text should never have just one subhead but a few throughout the piece, though the text should not start off with a subhead right under the title. As mini-titles, subheads align to the left margin and be fairly short. Subheads should also follow the same capitalization conventions of other titles. There are three levels for subheads, each of which has its own format:
Level One Subheads Are Bold and in 14-16 Point
LEVEL TWO SUBHEADS ARE THE SAME FONT BUT IN ALL CAPS
Level Three Are the Same Size but All Italicized
Block Quotes
A block quote is required when a writer wants to quote more than four lines of text, poetic text where formatting is important, or dramatic lines written in exchange format. The block quote should start on a new line under its leading paragraph (do not skip a full line). The entire text of the block quote should be indented by 1/2" just like the first lines of paragraphs. After the block quote, either continue the paragraph without skipping a line or indenting the paragraph at all, of skip a full line and start a new paragraph with indent. Block quotes look something like this:
ORLANDO: And wilt thou have me?
ROSALIND: Ay, and twenty such.
ORLANDO: What sayest thou?
ROSALIND: Are you not good?
ORLANDO: I hope so.
ROSALIND: Why then, can one desire too much of a good thing? (AYL IV.i.1895-1900)
For more clarity on how to use quotations properly in essay writing, read this article.
Adding Lists
Sometimes, listing items and separating them with commas isn't enough--the writer wants to make the lists stand out with clear divisions between each part of the list. There are two types of lists the writers can make: the embedded list and the bulleted list.
To make an embedded list, the writer ( 1 ) list all the subjects of the list in the desired order as part of a sentence; ( 2 ) place a semicolon after every list item; ( 3 ) place an Arabic numeral (never Roman) before each item but after any commas or conjunctions; and ( 4 ) place parentheses around each number while ensuring there exists a space between each number and parenthesis. This method works well to incorporate very long lists and steps in a sequence without disrupting the fluency of reading.
Bulleted lists work a bit differently. A writer wanting to use a bulleted list needs to keep in mind
- the paragraph before the list either introduces it with a phrase ending in a colon on breaks midsentence with no punctuation
- the bulleted list is indented 1/2" just like a block quote
- each item gets its own bullet
- the bullet that offsets each item can be a dot, a dash, or an Arabic numeral (again, never Roman)
- each item starts with a lowercase letter unless it's a proper noun or adjective
- no punctuation should follow the items in a bulleted list
- bulleted lists are clearer to readers but do disrupt the reading process
Adding Tables
Only add tables when they are needed to clarify and naturally expand upon the the ideas in the text--they should never be superfluous or added just to extend a page count. While tables should be tied directly to the text, they should be clear enough to interpret without need of the text.
Place tables as close as possible to their related text while keeping the entire table on one page. Before inserting the table, insert a line break and add a label consisting of the capitalized word Table and an Arabic number representing which table is being represented without punctuation (e.g., Table 1). This label should match an end-of-sentence parenthetical in the body text where the table data is mentioned and interpreted, just without the capital letter (see Table 1).
On the line under the table label should be the title of the table written in MLA title case. All this text should be left-justified and should not deviate in font or format from the body text.
Under this, add the table aligned to the left margin (though the data inside the table should be centered). A caption may be added immediately under the table if the table need further explanation--again, this text should match the rest of the text in the writing. These captions can be used as source citations written in the typical MLA format but without hanging indents. If the source citation for the table is not in the caption, it needs to be added to the Works Cited section.
Adding Figures
Any graphic, non-text element that isn't a table is considered a figure--figures include illustrations, photos, graphs, charts, and maps. Like tables, figures should be placed as close as possible to their related text while keeping the entire figure on one page. However, this does not mean figures should have text wrap around them as is done in journalism and online media: before inserting the figure, a line break must be inserted between the body text and the figure. Unlike tables, figures do not have to be left aligned and may be centered if desired.
Immediately under the figure, add a label consisting of the capitalized abbreviation Fig. and an Arabic number representing which table is being represented followed by a period (e.g., Fig. 1.). This label should match an end-of-sentence parenthetical in the body text where the figure is mentioned and interpreted, just without the capital letter (see fig. 1). The label needs to be left-justified even if the figure itself is centered.
Immediately following the label must be a caption that describes what the figure is--again, this text should match the rest of the text in the writing. Like with a table, this caption can be used as a source citation written in the typical MLA format but without hanging indents. If the source citation for the table is not in the caption, it needs to be added to the Works Cited section.
The one exception to these rules are images consisting of musical measures. Instead of calling such an illustration a figure, call it an example and label it Ex. Otherwise, all formatting and content requirements are the same as figures.
STEP 7: FORMATING REFERENCE PIECES--FOOTNOTES, END NOTES, & BIBLIOGRAPHIES
While footnotes and endnotes are acceptable in MLA style, they should be avoided whenever possible in favor of in-text citation. If a writer wants to include notes, they must pick either footnotes or endnotes--they may not use both in the same writing. Footnotes need to be at the very bottom of the same page on which the note is marked in the text and should not bleed onto the next page. There should be a 1/2" gap between where the body text on the page ends and where the footnotes begin. As this can make formatting difficult, endnotes are preferred in MLA. These endnotes should be listed numerically in their own section after the body text of the writing but before the Works Cited in a section with a centered and capitalized title of Notes.
Notes should use Arabic numbers in superscript (almost every word processor can format these for the writer). In the text, note numbers are place at the end of a clause or sentence directly after punctuation without a space--the only exception is in the case of a dash, where the notes number must go before the dash. The note itself should have a space between the note number and the note text, which should be in the same font as the body text. Never place two notes in the same place because this makes the two numbers appear as one different number (e.g., notes 6 and 7 put together would look like 67). For the sake of clarity, notes should also not be placed after in-text citations.
Situations in an MLA-styled work where notes may be helpful include
Source citations should be at the very end of the writing on their own page, formatted and paginated like the rest of the writing. At the top of the page should be a centered title of Works Cited (capitalized but not bolded, idealized, underlined, or embiggened). If the writing only cites one work, make this Work Cited. Under the title, list all source citations in MLA style in alphabetical order--when alphabetizing, skip symbols and articles (a, an, the) and treat numerals as where they would land alphabetically if spelled out. If two or more citations list the same author, the second entry and so on should replace the authors name with four em dashes (eight hyphens). All entries should use a hanging indent where every line after the first (which has no indent) is indented 1/2" from the left margin.
If the writer needs to add an annotated bibliography instead of a Works Cited page, the title at the top of the page should be changed to Annotated Bibliography. The source citations are listed and formatted in the exact same way as in a Works Cited page. Under each citation, the annotations are in the same size and font and indented a full inch from the left margin.
Notes should use Arabic numbers in superscript (almost every word processor can format these for the writer). In the text, note numbers are place at the end of a clause or sentence directly after punctuation without a space--the only exception is in the case of a dash, where the notes number must go before the dash. The note itself should have a space between the note number and the note text, which should be in the same font as the body text. Never place two notes in the same place because this makes the two numbers appear as one different number (e.g., notes 6 and 7 put together would look like 67). For the sake of clarity, notes should also not be placed after in-text citations.
Situations in an MLA-styled work where notes may be helpful include
- citations for not just one or two sources but a string of sources
- explanations for an unusual practice of page numbering or formatting by a source
- indications of which edition of text is being referenced when comparing multiple versions of the same text
- indicating translators of foreign texts for the writing (but not source text translators)
- explaining how a word is used in a quotation if different from modern usage
- to provide additional examples or elaboration that would distract from the main point if in the body text
- to identify allusions that a reader may not know
- to provide the names of all the authors for a work truncated with et al.
Source citations should be at the very end of the writing on their own page, formatted and paginated like the rest of the writing. At the top of the page should be a centered title of Works Cited (capitalized but not bolded, idealized, underlined, or embiggened). If the writing only cites one work, make this Work Cited. Under the title, list all source citations in MLA style in alphabetical order--when alphabetizing, skip symbols and articles (a, an, the) and treat numerals as where they would land alphabetically if spelled out. If two or more citations list the same author, the second entry and so on should replace the authors name with four em dashes (eight hyphens). All entries should use a hanging indent where every line after the first (which has no indent) is indented 1/2" from the left margin.
If the writer needs to add an annotated bibliography instead of a Works Cited page, the title at the top of the page should be changed to Annotated Bibliography. The source citations are listed and formatted in the exact same way as in a Works Cited page. Under each citation, the annotations are in the same size and font and indented a full inch from the left margin.
STEP 8: ALWAYS EDIT FOR CONVENTIONS
For any questions on how a word is spelled, pluralized, or can take on suffixes to become a different part of speech, writers should consult the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the primary dictionary for American English. While other dictionaries like the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) may be older and more extensive than Merriam-Webster, they often do not conform with MLA because they are based on British, Canadian, or other non-American forms of English.
For example, the OED lists entries for honour, analyse, jewellery, enrol, centre, ageing, mould, tyre, programme, sizeable, sceptic, artefact, chequerboard, kerb, smelt, grey, manoeuvre, licence, analogue, diarrhoea, and towards. None of these are proper in American English and should be rendered as honor, analyze, jewelry, enroll, center, aging, mold, tire, program, sizable, skeptic, artifact, checkerboard, curb, smelled, gray, maneuver, license, analog, diarrhea, and toward.
Other American English conventions that should be checked for include:
Conventions particular to MLA that aren't used by some other style guides should also be checked:
Any reliable spelling and grammar checker should find these errors so long as it is set to American English.
For example, the OED lists entries for honour, analyse, jewellery, enrol, centre, ageing, mould, tyre, programme, sizeable, sceptic, artefact, chequerboard, kerb, smelt, grey, manoeuvre, licence, analogue, diarrhoea, and towards. None of these are proper in American English and should be rendered as honor, analyze, jewelry, enroll, center, aging, mold, tire, program, sizable, skeptic, artifact, checkerboard, curb, smelled, gray, maneuver, license, analog, diarrhea, and toward.
Other American English conventions that should be checked for include:
- collective nouns (team, class, audience) is treated as singular, not plural
- commas and end punctuation go inside quotation marks, not outside
- if someone says something, it is enclosed in quotation marks
- quotation marks consist of two lines ( " " ) not one line ( ' ' )
- there is always a serial comma before the coordinating conjunction in a list (Oxford comma)
- Honorifics are followed by a period (Mr., Mrs., Dr., Esq.)
Conventions particular to MLA that aren't used by some other style guides should also be checked:
- dashes ( -- ) not hyphens ( - ) are used to separate number ranges
- titles capitalize ever word that isn't an article, coordinating conjunction, or preposition
- only works that are part of a whole have their titles enclosed in quotation marks--otherwise, titles are italicized
- there are no periods in acronyms that are fully capitalized (NASA, USA, MLA)
- Abbreviations that are not acronyms are always lowercase with periods (a.m., p.m., i.e., etc.)
- numbers that are only one word, including zero through ten, are always spelled out
- bulleted and embedded lists don't start with capital letters
- foreign words and phrases are italicized
Any reliable spelling and grammar checker should find these errors so long as it is set to American English.
STEP 9: SUBMITTING A PRINT COPY
While most instructors ask students to submit their writing digitally, there are still instructors who require a physical printed copy of the final draft of the writing. Students are becoming less familiar with physical printing and submission, and this has resulted in frequent student mistakes as to what makes a "clean draft." Here are some common-sense tips that students should remember for physical submission:
- Only print on one side of the page so the ink from the instructor's grading pen doesn't bled through to text on the other side
- Put all the pages in order and staple them together in the upper left corner--do not staple anywhere else
- Do not put the paper in a special folder or give it a plastic cover--this actually makes grading more difficult
- Turn in a nice flat copy--a wadded-up creased paper that has been crammed in the bottom of a backpack is not acceptable
- Turn in a pristine paper-- a paper covered in water spots or orange Cheetos fingerprints is a paper going into the shredder
APA Style Differences
STEP ONE: SET MARGINS
Same as MLA (1" all around)
STEP TWO: SET FONT
Same as MLA
STEP THREE: SET PAGINATION
Like MLA, every page including the first needs a page number in the same font as the rest of the text in the upper right corner, 1/2" down from the top edge. However, APA doesn't add a surname to the page number. Instead, APA required the title of the writing to be written in all capital letters and set in the upper left corner across from the page number.
STEP FOUR: ADD HEADER
APA requires a title page:
STEP FIVE: SET BODY TEXT
Before the body text, professional APA writings require an abstract. Otherwise, body text settings are the same as MLA.
STEP SIX: ADDING TEXT ELEMENTS
STEP SEVEN: ADDING REFERENCE NOTES AND CITATIONS
APA allows footnotes and has them formatted in the same way as MLA with one exception: footnotes go inside a parenthesis in APA whereas MLA keeps them outside. APA does not allow endnotes but does allow appendices. An appendix should be on its own labeled page and only expand upon one point from the writing--to discuss another point, create another appendix. All appendices should come before the References page.
Like MLA style, APA source citations should also be at the very end of the writing on their own page, formatted and paginated like the rest of the writing. At the top of the page should be a centered and bolded title of References instead of Works Cited. If the writing only cites one work, make this Reference. Under the title, list all source citations in APA style--like MLA, all of these are listed alphabetically and with hanging indents. If two or more citations list the same author, list the sources chronologically (earliest to newest)--if they are the same year, label one as a and one as b (e.g., 1994a). All entries should use a hanging indent where every line after the first (which has no indent) is indented 1/2" from the left margin.
If the writer needs to add an annotated bibliography instead of a References page, set it up exactly how an MLA annotated bibliography is set up--just with APA style citations instead of MLA style.
STEP EIGHT: STYLE CONVENTIONS
Excepting in-text and source citations, the only difference in conventions between APA and MLA is that titles in APA capitalize the first letter in a title and all proper nouns and adjectives, but no other words are capitalized.
STEP NINE: MAKING A PRINT COPY
Same as MLA
Same as MLA (1" all around)
STEP TWO: SET FONT
Same as MLA
STEP THREE: SET PAGINATION
Like MLA, every page including the first needs a page number in the same font as the rest of the text in the upper right corner, 1/2" down from the top edge. However, APA doesn't add a surname to the page number. Instead, APA required the title of the writing to be written in all capital letters and set in the upper left corner across from the page number.
STEP FOUR: ADD HEADER
APA requires a title page:
- all text on the title page should be the same font as the body text in the same size and weight
- the title of the writing (as well as any subtitle) should be one-third from the top of the page (about 14 single spaced lines or 7 double-spaced lines)
- the writer should then skip a line and then add their full name (first, middle initial, last)
- on the next line, add the department and institution name separated by a comma (for example, Mr. Coon teaches in the English Department, Frederick High School)
- on the next line, add the course title
- on the next line, add the instructor name
- on the next line, add the date in the American style (Month day, year)
- all text should be center justified on the title page
- the title page should have a page number on the title page and should be included in the page count, but the all-capitalized title across from the page number should not be on the title page
STEP FIVE: SET BODY TEXT
Before the body text, professional APA writings require an abstract. Otherwise, body text settings are the same as MLA.
STEP SIX: ADDING TEXT ELEMENTS
- SUBHEADS: APA has five levels of subheads, all of which are the same size and font as the rest of the text:
- Level 1: centered, bolded, and with every word capitalized
- Level 2: against left margin, bolded, and with every word capitalized
- Level 3: against left margin, bolded and italicized, and with every word capitalized
- Level 4: indented 1/2" from the left margin, bolded, every word is capitalized, and ends with a period
- Level 5: indented 1/2" from the left margin, bolded and italicized, every word is capitalized, and ends with a period
- BLOCK QUOTES: Same as MLA
- LISTS: In APA, embedded lists (a) use lowed case letters instead of numbers; (b) do not put spaces between the letter and each parenthesis; and (c) like MLA, separate the list items with semicolons. For bulleted lists, APA formats the list just like MLA but requires every entry to be a full sentence with a capital letter and end punctuation.
- TABLES: Same as MLA, but the title of the table is italicized. APA also differentiates between general notes on the table as a whole (which should follow an italicized and capitalized Note. followed by a period); specific notes that provide information on specific data in the table (which are footnoted under the table using a lowercase letter instead of a number); and probability notes to indicate the statistical significance (which are indicated with an asterisk followed by an italicized lowercase p followed by a period and an also italicized probability value (e.g., *p. < 0.09.). Tables may also not have any vertical borders (horizontal borders are allowed when they provide clarity.
- FIGURES: APA formats figures in the same way the format tables: the word Figure is capitalized and not abbreviated and followed by an Arabic numeral; a line is skipped an the title of the figure is in italicized title case; under this is the figure itself; and under this are general, specific, and probability notes formatted in the same way as tables.
STEP SEVEN: ADDING REFERENCE NOTES AND CITATIONS
APA allows footnotes and has them formatted in the same way as MLA with one exception: footnotes go inside a parenthesis in APA whereas MLA keeps them outside. APA does not allow endnotes but does allow appendices. An appendix should be on its own labeled page and only expand upon one point from the writing--to discuss another point, create another appendix. All appendices should come before the References page.
Like MLA style, APA source citations should also be at the very end of the writing on their own page, formatted and paginated like the rest of the writing. At the top of the page should be a centered and bolded title of References instead of Works Cited. If the writing only cites one work, make this Reference. Under the title, list all source citations in APA style--like MLA, all of these are listed alphabetically and with hanging indents. If two or more citations list the same author, list the sources chronologically (earliest to newest)--if they are the same year, label one as a and one as b (e.g., 1994a). All entries should use a hanging indent where every line after the first (which has no indent) is indented 1/2" from the left margin.
If the writer needs to add an annotated bibliography instead of a References page, set it up exactly how an MLA annotated bibliography is set up--just with APA style citations instead of MLA style.
STEP EIGHT: STYLE CONVENTIONS
Excepting in-text and source citations, the only difference in conventions between APA and MLA is that titles in APA capitalize the first letter in a title and all proper nouns and adjectives, but no other words are capitalized.
STEP NINE: MAKING A PRINT COPY
Same as MLA
Chicago Style Differences
STEP ONE: SET MARGINS
Same as MLA (1" all around)
STEP TWO: SET FONT
Same as MLA
STEP THREE: SET PAGINATION
Like MLA, every page including the first needs a page number in the same font as the rest of the text in the upper right corner, 1/2" down from the top edge. However, Chicago doesn't add a surname to the page number.
STEP FOUR: ADD HEADER
While some instructors requiring Chicago style are fine with the MLA style header on the first page, other instructors require a title page in the Turabian format:
STEP FIVE: SET BODY TEXT
Same as MLA
STEP SIX: ADDING TEXT ELEMENTS
STEP SEVEN: ADDING REFERENCE NOTES AND CITATIONS
Chicago style allows either in-text citation or note-bibliography citation, depending on the preference of the instructor.
For a CMOS in-text writing (called Author-Date), footnotes are not allowed. Every citation follows the sentence in parentheses like in MLA and APA (though CMOS acts like a blend of the two, citing Author Year, Page). At the end of the writing on its own page, all the sources are cited in CMOS Author-Date style on a page set up like the APA page: it is titled References (though the word is not bolded), alphabetizes its entries, and gives each citation a hanging indent. Like APA, if two or more citations list the same author, list the sources chronologically (earliest to newest). If the writer needs to add an annotated bibliography instead of a References page, set it up exactly how an MLA annotated bibliography is set up--just with CMOS Author-Date style citations instead of MLA style.
For a CMOS Notes-Bibliography writing, every citation follows the clause or sentence with a number in superscript, formatted in the same fashion as they are in MLA and APA. Like with MLA, the writer needs to pick footnotes or endnotes, not both. The first time a source is cited in a note, the main source citation information should be listed in this format: Author name [First then Last], Name of the work in italics or quotes (City: Publisher, Year), page number. Websites are slightly different: for example, this page would be listed as Brandon Coon, "Page Format," CoonWriting, accessed 18 March 2024, http://www.coonwriting.com/page-format. Subsequent entries citing that source should only cite the last name of the author and the page number separated by a comma. If a website or if two sources have the same author, the title is also listed in the subsequent footnote (Coon, "Page Format"). If a note has the exact same text as the note above it, it should be replaced with Ibid.
At the end of the writing on its own page, all the sources are cited in CMOS Notes-Bibliography style, WHICH IS NOT THE SAME AS AUTHOR-DATE STYLE. The page is titled Bibliography (centered, capitalized, and in regular text), alphabetizes its entries, and gives each citation a hanging indent. Like APA, if two or more citations list the same author, list the sources chronologically (earliest to newest). If the writer needs to add an annotated bibliography instead of just a Bibliography page, set it up exactly how an MLA annotated bibliography is set up--just with CMOS Notes-Bibliography style citations instead of MLA style.
STEP EIGHT: STYLE CONVENTIONS
Same as MLA
STEP NINE: MAKING A PRINT COPY
Same as MLA
Same as MLA (1" all around)
STEP TWO: SET FONT
Same as MLA
STEP THREE: SET PAGINATION
Like MLA, every page including the first needs a page number in the same font as the rest of the text in the upper right corner, 1/2" down from the top edge. However, Chicago doesn't add a surname to the page number.
STEP FOUR: ADD HEADER
While some instructors requiring Chicago style are fine with the MLA style header on the first page, other instructors require a title page in the Turabian format:
- all text on the title page should be the same font as the body text in the same size and weight
- the title of the writing (as well as any subtitle) should be one-third from the top of the page (about 14 single spaced lines or 7 double-spaced lines)
- two-thirds from the top of the page (14 more single lines after the title), the writer should add their first and last name
- on the next line, add the course title but not instructor name
- on the next line, add the date in the American style (Month day, year)
- all text should be center justified on the title page
- the title page should not have a page number nor should be included in the page count
STEP FIVE: SET BODY TEXT
Same as MLA
STEP SIX: ADDING TEXT ELEMENTS
- SUBHEADS: CMOS has five levels of subheads, all of which are the same size and font as the rest of the text:
- Level 1: centered, bolded, and with every word capitalized
- Level 2: centered, not bolded or italicized, and with every word capitalized
- Level 3: against left margin, not bolded or italicized, and with every word capitalized
- Level 4: against the left margin, bolded, and with only the first word and proper names capitalized
- Level 5:against the left margin, bolded, only the first word and proper names capitalized, ends with a period, and runs directly into paragraph text.
- BLOCK QUOTES: These should be indented 1/2" from the left margin and never double spaced.
- LISTS: Same as MLA except that bulleted list items all need to start with a capital letter, whether or not they are full sentences or have end punctuation
- TABLES AND FIGURES: Same as MLA with the addition of a parenthetical listing a credit (e.g., Photo by ) to the end of the table or figure caption.
STEP SEVEN: ADDING REFERENCE NOTES AND CITATIONS
Chicago style allows either in-text citation or note-bibliography citation, depending on the preference of the instructor.
For a CMOS in-text writing (called Author-Date), footnotes are not allowed. Every citation follows the sentence in parentheses like in MLA and APA (though CMOS acts like a blend of the two, citing Author Year, Page). At the end of the writing on its own page, all the sources are cited in CMOS Author-Date style on a page set up like the APA page: it is titled References (though the word is not bolded), alphabetizes its entries, and gives each citation a hanging indent. Like APA, if two or more citations list the same author, list the sources chronologically (earliest to newest). If the writer needs to add an annotated bibliography instead of a References page, set it up exactly how an MLA annotated bibliography is set up--just with CMOS Author-Date style citations instead of MLA style.
For a CMOS Notes-Bibliography writing, every citation follows the clause or sentence with a number in superscript, formatted in the same fashion as they are in MLA and APA. Like with MLA, the writer needs to pick footnotes or endnotes, not both. The first time a source is cited in a note, the main source citation information should be listed in this format: Author name [First then Last], Name of the work in italics or quotes (City: Publisher, Year), page number. Websites are slightly different: for example, this page would be listed as Brandon Coon, "Page Format," CoonWriting, accessed 18 March 2024, http://www.coonwriting.com/page-format. Subsequent entries citing that source should only cite the last name of the author and the page number separated by a comma. If a website or if two sources have the same author, the title is also listed in the subsequent footnote (Coon, "Page Format"). If a note has the exact same text as the note above it, it should be replaced with Ibid.
At the end of the writing on its own page, all the sources are cited in CMOS Notes-Bibliography style, WHICH IS NOT THE SAME AS AUTHOR-DATE STYLE. The page is titled Bibliography (centered, capitalized, and in regular text), alphabetizes its entries, and gives each citation a hanging indent. Like APA, if two or more citations list the same author, list the sources chronologically (earliest to newest). If the writer needs to add an annotated bibliography instead of just a Bibliography page, set it up exactly how an MLA annotated bibliography is set up--just with CMOS Notes-Bibliography style citations instead of MLA style.
STEP EIGHT: STYLE CONVENTIONS
Same as MLA
STEP NINE: MAKING A PRINT COPY
Same as MLA
Page last updated 23 March 2024.
FURTHER READING
Coon, Brandon. "How to Quote a Source." CoonWriting. 16 March 2024, coonwriting.com/how-to-quote.
------ . "Works Cited Pages." CoonWriting. 16 March 2024, coonwriting.com/works-cited.
"Formatting Your Research Project." MLA Handbook. 9th ed., The Modern Language Association of America, 2021, pp. 1-14.
"Long Quotations (Block Quotations) [6.35]." MLA Handbook. 9th ed., The Modern Language Association of America, 2021, pp. 254--55.
"Titles of Works in Your Prose [2.89]." MLA Handbook. 9th ed., The Modern Language Association of America, 2021, pp. 53--77.
------ . "Works Cited Pages." CoonWriting. 16 March 2024, coonwriting.com/works-cited.
"Formatting Your Research Project." MLA Handbook. 9th ed., The Modern Language Association of America, 2021, pp. 1-14.
"Long Quotations (Block Quotations) [6.35]." MLA Handbook. 9th ed., The Modern Language Association of America, 2021, pp. 254--55.
"Titles of Works in Your Prose [2.89]." MLA Handbook. 9th ed., The Modern Language Association of America, 2021, pp. 53--77.